Abstract
This thesis lies in the broader area of nanophotonics and photonic integrated circuits. The subject focuses on the design of electro-optical modulators based on free-carrier effects in transparent conducting oxides (TCOs), exploiting the epsilon-near-zero effect (ENZ) they manifest in the near-infrared region. The design is carried out on mature silicon-photonic waveguides, coated with a thin film of transparent conducting oxide (ITO), interposing a high dielectric constant oxide (HfO2). The modulation is achieved by controlling the concentration of free carriers in the transparent conducting oxide under the effect of an external electric field. The field effect is described through the drift-diffusion model, which is derived from semiconductor theory under realistic assumptions. The model is able to rigorously and consistently describe highly heterogeneous junctions, both in steady-state and transient conditions. Changes at the microscopic level are mapped to macroscopic material quan ...
This thesis lies in the broader area of nanophotonics and photonic integrated circuits. The subject focuses on the design of electro-optical modulators based on free-carrier effects in transparent conducting oxides (TCOs), exploiting the epsilon-near-zero effect (ENZ) they manifest in the near-infrared region. The design is carried out on mature silicon-photonic waveguides, coated with a thin film of transparent conducting oxide (ITO), interposing a high dielectric constant oxide (HfO2). The modulation is achieved by controlling the concentration of free carriers in the transparent conducting oxide under the effect of an external electric field. The field effect is described through the drift-diffusion model, which is derived from semiconductor theory under realistic assumptions. The model is able to rigorously and consistently describe highly heterogeneous junctions, both in steady-state and transient conditions. Changes at the microscopic level are mapped to macroscopic material quantities using permittivity models that translate the changes in the concentration of free carriers to changes in the optical properties of semiconductors. The modulated permittivity is then introduced to conventional electromagnetic tools to derive the device response. Beginning with the design of in-line modulators based on ITO, two of the most popular silicon-photonics systems are employed, i.e., the Si-wire and Si-slot waveguides. Binary amplitude/phase-shift keying (BASK/BPSK) as well as quadrature phase-shift keying (QPSK) modulation schemes are investigated, both in transverse electric and magnetic operation. The control of the free-carrier concentration in ITO is achieved by applying the modulation signal to the n-Si/HfO2/ITO junction. The ITO-based amplitude modulators require lengths of only a few micrometers to achieve an extinction ratio of 10 dB, while introducing extremely low insertion losses. They also feature a bandwidth greater than 100 GHz, with the energy consumption estimated to be less than pJ/bit. The energy consumption is rigorously calculated with respect to the underlying semiconductor physics, highlighting an overall tendency in the literature to underestimate the consumption. Similarly, ITO-based phase modulators are proven significantly more compact than their literature counterparts, with insertion losses in the 1 dB/rad range and bandwidth values ≈ 50 GHz. The energy consumption is calculated in the pJ/bit range. The proposed modulators are compared with counterparts that exploit free-carrier effects as well, but in graphene. Graphene-based modulators have dominated the literature in recent years due to their impressive performance metrics. To ensure a fair comparison, the thesis considers the design of optimized graphene-based modulators, exploiting the same physical system and the same physical principles for describing the underlying effects. The comparison is made with reference to the on-off keying modulation scheme, considering resonant, microring modulators as well, where the modulation effect is achieved by controlling the coupling conditions between the ring resonator and a side-coupled waveguide through changes in the intrinsic quality factor of the resonator. By ensuring critical coupling conditions, the extinction ratio is (theoretically) infinite, with the insertion losses being extremely low. The energy consumption is estimated in the range of pJ/bit or lower, significantly reduced compared with the respective of in-line modulators. The calculated bandwidth exceeds 100 GHz. Both technologies achieve performance metrics that compare directly or even surpass the respective of state-of-the-art modulation technologies, meeting the requirements of next-generation optical systems, both in resonant and in-line configuration. However, neither technology is proven dominant in every individual performance metric, with the ease of fabrication being of importance as well. In conclusion, TCO-based electro-optical modulators is a research direction with remarkable potential. The research in this thesis makes a significant contribution by proposing modulators with extremely high performance, characterized by micrometer lengths, high extinction ratios, low insertion losses, power consumption less than pJ/bit, and impressive bandwidth values (> 100 GHz). Misconceptions prevalent in the literature are pointed out and a rigorous computational framework for the physically consistent description of the phenomena at the microscopic level is introduced, which can find universal application in the design of electro-optical modulators based on free-carrier effects.
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